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The Committee tried to account for this heterogeneity by developing a tiered set of guidance suitable to diverse communities and initiatives of varying scales and intensities with differing levels of resources for community assessment and surveillance pain treatment centers of america colorado springs cheap 500 mg probenecid amex. Community assessment and surveillance may be global Community assessment as defined by this chapter is focused on assessments of obesity prevention efforts shalom pain treatment medical center buy probenecid 500 mg. Community health assessment is commonly used in the field as a way to assess overall health of a community laser treatment for dogs back pain order probenecid 500mg online, which can include obesity pain treatment for lumbar arthritis order cheapest probenecid and probenecid. Evaluating Obesity Prevention Efforts: A Plan for Measuring Progress assessments of the health of a community or focus specifically on chronic diseases, or more specifically on obesity. In both cases, they should include indicators that assess progress in obesity prevention, such as obesity prevalence3; obesity-related behaviors such as physical activity and food and beverage consumption; features of the environment that influence behaviors such as accessibility of healthful foods, walkability, or places for physical activity; policies that shape environments and behaviors, nutrition, and physical activity programs; other interventions such as media campaigns or food retail promotion of healthier foods; levels of funding for obesity prevention initiatives; transportation systems; and social assets. Ideally, they also describe policies that shape environments and behaviors such as menu labeling or pedestrian master plans, as well as the interactions of sectors and institutions in addressing obesity from a systems analysis perspective, although data and methods for these domains are just emerging (see Chapter 9). These provide various forms of data to facilitate planning for future actions and to examine the effects of interventions over time. The rest of the chapter provides support and guidance for implementing each step with specific attention to different needs for larger and smaller communities. In this 3 Incidence data would be preferable, but these are generally not available at the local level. Evaluating Obesity Prevention Efforts: A Plan for Measuring Progress context, community is defined as people sharing a common place. A community may also be defined as a group of people who identify themselves as sharing a common interest or culture, but this interpretation is only applicable here to the extent that such a common-interest community is local. The choice of geographic boundaries often depends on availability of data for the area of interest. By displaying indicators stratified by demographic and geographic strata, it becomes apparent whether progress in preventing obesity is occurring equitably (see Figures 7-1 and 7-2 for examples). The boundaries of the community must be explicit to help to clarify the conditions of that particular community and to identify the appropriate set of indicators (McIntyre and Ellaway, 2000). Interested stakeholders include community organizations and coalitions, hospitals, local public health agencies, human service agencies, schools, business, and community health centers. The extent and type of end-user engagement should be appropriate to the scale and scope of each specific community assessment or development of surveillance capacity. Community Obesity Assessment and Surveillance 187 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. Include stakeholders, to the extent possible, in defining community, identifying priorities, planning assessments, collecting data, interpreting and sense-making of results, and disseminating the findings. Identify lead agency or agencies responsible for conducting assessment/surveillance. Identify sub-populations and small areas disproportionately affected by obesity, and develop approach to collecting information about them. Select local data to be included about context, assets, interventions, barriers, and social determinants, and which data to schedule for ongoing surveillance. Share data with community members and other stakeholders for their interpretations and suggested implications for action. An example of the application of participatory methods to community obesity assessment and surveillance comes from the work of Faith Leaders for Environmental Justice in New York City (see Box 7-3). Community Obesity Assessment and Surveillance 189 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. Evaluating Obesity Prevention Efforts: A Plan for Measuring Progress Indicator: Percent of Adults Who Are Obese, Health Reporting Areas, King County, 2007-2011 Legend Adult obesity rate 29% - 35% 23% - 28% 17% - 22% 10% - 16% 0 1. Invite members of the community to participate through public announcements and connectors-those with trusting relationships and credibility with members of diverse communities. Make community participation and involvement easier by addressing logistical and cultural barriers to participation. Assess and enhance the cultural competence of the community assessment/surveillance initiative by considering the local customs and values of the community, designing the assessment/surveillance with the participation of people from diverse cultures within the community, and assuring that minority groups have the power and voice to express their concerns and ideas. Assure open communication of draft plans/findings and opportunities for review and feedback from the whole community. Community Obesity Assessment and Surveillance 191 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. This group brought together community residents to help to identify priority problems in their communities, document problems associated with the food environments, elicit experiences on the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program and other food accessrelated policies, and identify existing policies that may relate to their policy goals and interests. The work of this group illustrates the utility of a community-based participatory approach and to policy advocacy work.
Risk Crop pollination deficit leading to lower quantity or quality of food (and other products) Main drivers · Changes in land cover and spatial configuration {2 blue sky pain treatment center/health services order probenecid online pills. Most sets of responses could be variously classified according to all these different classifications quad pain treatment probenecid 500mg on line, and there is no right way pain treatment uti purchase 500 mg probenecid fast delivery, but there is usually a way that seems most logical and informative for a particular subject davis pain treatment center probenecid 500mg low price. Previous attempts to classify responses relating to ecosystem services include the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Chopra et al. After reviewing these typologies, we decided classifying by type of action is the most straightforward way to group responses for pollinators and pollination. Classifications based on actors, scales or threats were less useful, as many responses involve several actors working together, operate at several scales or respond to many possible threats. These were identified by policymakers and scientists from eleven, predominantly developing countries, as a set of successful approaches for decision makers to support. We did not use them to structure our chapter, because they represent a mix of policy sectors. These responses are tools and procedures that people use to manage pollinators or pollination, or land management approaches that could benefit pollinators. For example, they include farming or agroforestry practices such as organic farming and crop rotation (section 6. For pollinators and pollination, the responses include habitat or species protection through conservation designations, and controlling imports of non-native species, for example. These responses are financial or economic actions either to either punish bad practices or provide economic incentives for good practices, related to pollinators. They include, for example, taxes on pesticides that increment their costs and reduce the benefits for the farmers (6. They include participatory processes to involve communities in decisionmaking (not the same as involving communities in research and knowledge gathering), adaptive management of native habitats, and voluntary codes of practice generated by community, consumer or industry groups rather than by lawmaking institutions. Knowledge responses include actions that generate new knowledge and actions that transfer or share knowledge among groups of actors. They cover scientific research and monitoring, as well as documenting and sharing indigenous and local knowledge. They also include education, outreach, knowledge exchange and collaborative research activities. These are distinguished from social and behavioural actions because they focus on the communication or transfer of knowledge, rather than on decisions, actions and behaviour. In this report, we compile what is known about the effects of integrated responses that cut across sectors in section 6. For each chosen response or category of response, we reviewed what is known about its effects on pollinators, pollination or any other measures or outcomes that relate to the risks and opportunities discussed in section 6. These agricultural practices are commonly applied to mitigate negative impacts of agriculture, such as those identified in Chapter 2. These practices can benefit pollinator richness by providing suitable food and nesting resources within and across arable farms without changing cropping patterns (Nicholls and Altieri, 2013). We know of no evidence for population-level effects on pollinators, although some studies indicate that numbers of bumble bee reproductives (males or males and queens) tend to increase as flowers are added to a landscape (Williams et al. Far less is known about which plant species are beneficial for bees and other pollinators in terms of quality of nectar and pollen (see section 6. Then we ask which, if any, have been tested or are already established, drawing on Indigenous and Local Knowledge in addition to scientific knowledge. There is a subsection for each of five main sectors: a) agriculture, b) pesticides, c) nature conservation, d) pollinator management and beekeeping and e) urban and transport infrastructure; Subsection f) covers integrated responses that involve actions in more than one sector. Strips sowed with flowers, particularly those rich in nectar or pollen, support higher insect abundances and diversity than cropped habitats or other field margin types such as sown grass margins and natural regeneration (Carvell et al. However the effectiveness of these small-scale practices varied with (1) the magnitude of increase in flowering plant cover resulting from the practices, (2) farmland type, and (3) landscape context (Scheper et al. It is possible that flowering resources placed alongside crop fields increase exposure of pollinators to pesticides, however, this hypothesis has not been tested (see section 2. Regional programs to increase the quality and availability of seeds from native flowering plants are important for the success of these practices (Isaacs et al. Operation Pollinator, a programme to boost numbers of pollinating insects on farms and golf courses across Europe, run by the agri-chemical company Syngenta, has developed and tested seed mixtures to provide to land managers Although some of the above studies have shown direct benefits of wildflower strips in terms of increased pollinator richness, abundance and activity on crops, there is limited evidence about the direct impact of those practices on crop yield. One study showed that floral strips surrounding crops modify the level of outcrossing within the cultivar, consequently affecting the genetic structure of the cultivar (Suso et al.
Slightly more than half of the species modeled currently have or are projected to have suitable habitat in all six sections pain treatment in cats best purchase for probenecid, and onequarter of the species are modeled in four or five sections pain medication for dogs after shots buy probenecid australia. Among the species projected to have suitable habitat across four or more sections of the assessment area southern california pain treatment center pasadena purchase probenecid 500 mg on-line, distinct differences in climate acute neck pain treatment guidelines generic probenecid 500mg visa, landform, and other characteristics often result in a variety of projected change classes between sections for a single species. An importance value of zero (light yellow) indicates that the species is not present currently, or will not have suitable habitat at the end of the century. Red spruce is currently recovering from past harvesting and fire disturbance, and is expanding on the landscape to refill its niche (Nowacki et al. Earlycentury increases in red spruce due to succession and planting efforts may help the species do better than models project in the short term. Additionally, these results do not incorporate the influence of modifying factors (positive for sugar maple and chestnut oak, negative for eastern white pine and red spruce). Suitable habitat maps assessing the whole eastern United States are available online through the Climate Change Tree Atlas Web site ( As is the case for interpreting any spatial model outputs, local knowledge of soils, landforms, and other factors is necessary to determine if particular sites may indeed be suitable habitat for a given species in the future. Results for each of the five sections within the assessment area are provided in Appendix 4. Species establishment probabilities reflect the ability of a species to establish and grow on a site and can be thought of as a measure of habitat suitability, but they do not account for the effects of interspecific competition and disturbance. Results for other species varied between sections, increasing or decreasing for black cherry, black oak, chestnut oak, northern red oak, pignut hickory, and white ash (Appendix 5). Some species showing large increases in potential growth are currently absent from the region or have very limited distributions. It would take a long time for them to respond (especially without planting) to this increase in potential growth and establishment. For example, loblolly pine is currently rare and exists mostly in plantations within the assessment area. Basal area and number of trees per acre were simulated for each 88-foot grid cell and then summarized for ecological sections and the entire assessment area. Forest management was simulated as tree harvest on 8 to 13 percent of the forested area per decade, with the older stands harvested first. The model did not include wind or fire disturbance; that is, simulations represent forests with succession and management but without mortality from fire, wind, insects, disease, or other disturbances. The width of the colored line represents the relative basal area for each species through the year 2110. For example, red maple had the highest basal area in 2010, and basal area is projected to increase due to natural succession and management for current climate. Change represents the difference from current climate in 2100 and represents potential change due to climate change. For example, red maple had the most trees per acre in 2010, but American beech is projected to become most abundant by the end of this century. For example, although northern red oak is projected to increase within the assessment area, these increases are largely concentrated in sections in northern Ohio (221F), and the easternmost sections (M221A and M221B) (Appendix 4). It is important to note that these maps detect relative change on a pixel by pixel basis rather than averaged by section within the assessment area, as presented above. Geographic trends the geographic and biological complexity of the assessment area warranted a closer look at the five ecological sections within the broader assessment Figure 40. Basal area in 2100 under current climate represents the change in basal area attributable to succession and management. Therefore, the ability to make comparisons between the different models facilitates a deeper understanding of which parts of a forest ecosystem may be most responsive or vulnerable to change. However, the differences between the models, in terms of design, outputs, strengths, and weaknesses, also make direct comparisons among model results difficult. This section describes areas of agreement and disagreement between the results and provides context for how the results from multiple models can be integrated to better understand forest change. Although the amount of suitable habitat may decline, the remaining habitat may continue to be favorable for northern red oak, including the regeneration of northern red oak (in the absence of herbivory, competition, or other stressors).
Mortality due to mowing when eggs and larvae are present is a threat to the persistence of some butterfly species (Thomas pain medication for dogs dose order probenecid now, 1984; Wynhoff pain treatment germany buy probenecid mastercard, 1998) advanced pain treatment center ky order probenecid with a visa. Mowing can also disturb ant nests pain medication for dogs with osteosarcoma purchase probenecid line, which in turn affects the survival of butterflies that rely on particular ant species (their final instar larvae feed in the ant nests) (Wynhoff et al. Caterpillars on the ground as well as caterpillars on vegetation are vulnerable to direct mortality by mower (Humbert et al. Mowing also creates a sward of uniform height and may destroy topographical features such as grass tussocks (Morris 2000) when care is not taken to avoid these features or the mower height is too low. Such features provide structural diversity and offer potential nesting sites for pollinator insects such as bumble bees (Hopwood et al. In addition to direct mortality and structural changes, mowing can result in a sudden removal of almost all floral resources for foraging pollinators and butterfly host plants (Johst et al. The reduction in host plants and foraging resources can reduce pollinator reproduction and 2. These alterations affect plant production and the amount of floral and nesting resources available to pollinators, thus influencing their abundance or diversity (Kearns et al. While some studies identified a positive effect of grazing on the overall pollinator diversity in Mediterranean, cold steppes and temperate forests (Vanbergen et al. A study on a steppe in eastern Mongolia shows that overgrazing weakens ecological function through the impoverishment of forbs and consequent pollination over a wide area, and by unexpectedly weakening the flowerpollinator network (Yoshira et al. The precise outcome of livestock grazing for pollinators and pollination likely depends on the land cover type, pool of plant species in the community as well as the grazing intensity, selectivity, timing, land-use history and climate (Asner et al. The frequency and timing of mowing influence the composition of vegetation over time (Forrester et al. Frequent mowing during a growing season reduces native plant growth and the ability of forbs to compete with grasses. Excessive roadside mowing may have led to a decrease in flowers and a subsequent decrease in bumble bees in Belgium (Rasmont et al. Intensively-mowed roadsides generally have the shortest vegetation and lowest amount of nectar, which together result in decreased butterfly abundance (Gerell 1997; Saarinen et al. However, carefully timed roadside mowing can have positive effects on plant diversity (Parr and Way, 1988) that in turn benefit pollinators. Frick and Flury (2001) estimated losses from rotary mowers as between 9,000 and 24,000 bees per hectare in flowering white clover fields and 90,000 per hectare in flowering Phacelia. Mowing without a conditioner, which processes hay so it dries more quickly, reduced the mortality by a factor of seven. In order to avoid significant bee losses, the researchers recommend refraining from mowing in periods of increased flight activity. The use of a conditioner reduced the survival rate of orthopterans from 32% to 18%. Leaving uncut refuges and delaying mowing mitigate the impact on pollinators (Buri et al. Although there is no evidence about the effect of mowing mortality on local pollinator population dynamics and its impact on pollination, studies suggest mowing can have a negative impact. In the Western Amazon pollen deposition rate of some hardwood tree species was reduced, others were increased, while some species were unaffected at logged sites compared to non-logged forest (Maues et al. Moth diversity and abundance increased with levels of disturbance in montane rainforests (Axmacher et al. In the boreal forest of Canada there were generally more bumble bees, species of bumble bee-visited plants, and flowers in moderately (50-75% of trees remaining) logged sites, but logging affected the distribution of bumble bees across floral resources, with too many bumble bees in the flower-poor compartments and too few in the flower-rich ones than merited based on the quantity of flower resources (Cartar, 2005). Controlling for flower density, bumble bee density was significantly greater in clearcuts than in the highly (10-20% of remaining trees) or moderately logged (50-75% of trees remaining) plots. By disproportionately visiting plants in clearcuts (relative to flower density) bumble bees in clearcuts should experience higher levels of competition. Forests experiencing different levels of disturbance were also shown to harbour different plant and insect species, thus plant-pollinator networks also show different characteristics (Nielsen and Totland, 2014). Fires in Mediterranean oak-pine forests lead to an initial strong reduction of bee diversity in recently burnt areas, with a recovery in the following years, which has been shown to be highly correlated to floral diversity (Potts et al. Fire considerably changes vegetation and land cover conditions, and therefore can have an important effect on pollinators and plant pollination, which may be detrimental.
Inflorescence: A flower-cluster of a plant; the arrangement of the flowers on the axis pain solutions treatment center ga probenecid 500 mg discount. Lance-shaped: As in leaves that are several times longer than broad and widest below the middle pain treatment in rheumatoid arthritis cheap probenecid 500 mg line, tapering with convex sides upward to the tip back pain treatment during pregnancy order probenecid 500mg on-line. Latex: A colorless sciatica pain treatment options cheap 500mg probenecid with mastercard, white, yellow or reddish liquid, produced by some plants, characterized by the presence of colloidal particles of terpenes dispersed in water. Lobe: A projecting segment of an organ, too large to be called a tooth but with the adjoining sinuses usually extending less than half-way to the base or mid-line. Mature fruit: A fruit that has ripened; and often assumed a different color from when it was young. Midrib: the main rib or longitudinal vein (an externally visible vascular bundle) of a leaf or leaflet. Naturalized: Thoroughly established in a particular geographic region, but originally coming from another geographic area. New World: Pertaining to North and South America, as in a plant native to that region. Nut: A relatively large, dry, indehiscent fruit with a hard wall, usually containing only one seed. Old World: Pertaining to Europe, Asia and Africa, as in a plant native to that region. Opposite: Situated directly across from each other at the same node or level, as the leaves or leaflets of some plants; situated directly in front of (on the same radius as) another organ, as stamens opposite the petals. Palmately Compound: As in a leaf with three or more lobes arising from a common point. Petal: A member of the inner set of floral leaves, usually colored or white and serving to attract pollinators. Pistil: the female organ of a flower, ordinarily differentiated into an ovary, style and stigma. Rosette: A cluster of leaves or other organs arranged in a circle or disk, often in a basal position. Serrated Leaf: Saw toothed, with teeth pointing forward towards the tip of the leaf. Shrub: A woody plant that remains low and produces shoots or trunks from its base. Simple leaf: A leaf with the blade all in one piece (although it may be deeply cleft), not compound. Spike: A more or less elongate inflorescence, with sessile (lacking a stalk) flowers attached directly by their base. Spine: A firm, slender sharp-pointed structure, representing a modified leaf or stipule; more loosely, a structure having the appearance of a true spine. Sporophyll: A modified leaf that bears or subtends the spore bearing cases in certain plants 456 such as ferns and cycads Stamen: the male organ of a flower, consisting of an anther usually on a filament. Strobilus: A cluster of sporophylls or ovule bearing scales on an axis, such as in a cone. Tendril: A slender, coiling or twining organ (representing a modified stem or leaf or part thereof) by which a climbing plant grasps its support. Tooth: Serration, as on the edge of a leaf (plural, teeth) Tuberous: Thickened like a tuber, as in roots. Weed: A plant that aggressively colonizes disturbed habitats or places where it is not wanted. The emphasis is on an integrated policy approach to investment, technological capacity building and enterprise development. The term "country" as used in this study also refers, as appropriate, to territories or areas; the designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. In addition, the designations of country groups are intended solely for statistical or analytical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage of development reached by a particular country or area in the development process. The boundaries and names shown and designations used on the maps presented in this publication do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
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